Colloquial English Grammar

Estonian Business School Institute of Foreign Languages GRAMMAR OF SPOKEN ENGLISH Term Paper By Maria Esko BBL-2 Supervisor: Ludmilla Podolski Tallinn 2012 Table of Contents Introduction3 Common Features of Spoken English4 Grammar Characteristics7 Clause Combination7 Position of items8 Pausing, Repeating and Recasting8 Organising the discourse9 Ellipsis9 Response Tokens10 Vague Expressions11 Headers and Tails11 Conclusion12 References13 Introduction In the business world, communication is vital for creating new networks and acquiring important business partners.Communication is the activity of conveying information. Effective communication skills can be considered the key to success. I have chosen to investigate English spoken language in order to clarify what spoken English grammar is. As a non-native speaker I consider learning spoken grammar incredibly important in order to understand the other party. The communication process can be considered successfully completed only when the listener has understood the message of the speaker. The fact that speaking and writing are different is quite obvious.The studies of the spoken English grammar have been neglected for a long time, since it was considered as confusing and full of mistakes. Development of technology has made it possible to analyse spoken language more thoroughly. Therefore many fascinating facts about spoken Grammar have arisen. In this paper I will use the term spoken grammar in the meaning of colloquial English. The characteristics of formal English speaking, e. g. prepared speeches are not analysed in this term paper. This paper gives an overview of the main features of the grammar of spoken English.The differences between spoken and written English are supplied with illustrations. In the conclusion the overall characteristics of the grammar of spoken English have been summarised. Common Features of Spoken English Is there any grammar in spoken English? To answer this question I have to define the overall meaning of grammar. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica the term grammar in a restricted sense refers only to the study of sentence and word structure (syntax and morphology), excluding vocabulary and pronunciation.Although language is the same the grammar of spoken English may differ since following the grammar rules during a conversation is time consuming and unnatural. When spoken language is observed in more detail it also has patterns and specific structures which may be considered as the grammar of spoken language. During a conversation we do not have much time to think what we are about to say and can not plan our speech in advance (excluding some special cases). While listening to a recorded speech it feels normal, fluent and easy to follow. On the other hand, when put on paper it is rather difficult to understand.However it gives an opportunity to notice some specific features of colloquial English language, such as silent pauses, voice filled pauses, repetitions , false starts, discourse markers(small words or fixed phrases used to indicate the beginning or the end of an idea) and short forms (Leech, Svartvik, 2002). Specific features mostly have a contextual meaning for the listener and can indicate different changes in the subject of the conversation. In this paper the term Spoken English language is understood in a narrow sense. It only includes the colloquial English and face-to-face interactions.Prepared speeches and other types of formal English speaking are not taken into account and are not discussed in the given work. In the figure below are presented the seven most typical conditions operating in real-time conversation. These features best describe why spoken language is so difficult to put in writing. Figure 1: Seven conditions operating in conversation (Leech, n. d. , figure 2) Further is given an example of a conversation which illustrates the conditions generally operating in a conversation. It will be later analysed and used as an example for various items of spoken grammar.Four speakers are sitting at the dinner table talking about a car accident that happened to the father of one of the speakers. At the end of this sequence they switch to another topic. I’ll just take that off and Have you got hold of it? are references to a large pan which is on the dinner table. The = sign indicates an utterance which is cut short The + sign indicates an interrupted turn which continues at the next + sign A: I’ll just take that off. Take that off. B: All looks great. C: [laughs] B: Mm. C: Mm. B: I think your dad was amazed wasn’t he at the damage.A: Mm. B: It’s not so much the parts. It’s the labor charges for= D: Oh that. For a car. B: Have you got hold of it? A: Yeah. B: It was a bit erm= A: Mm. C: Mm. B: A bit. A: That’s right. B: I mean they said they’d have to take his car in for two days. And he said all it is is straightening a panel. And they’re like, à ¢â‚¬ËœOh no. It’s all new panel. You can’t do this’. C: Any erm problem. B: As soon as they hear insurance claim. Oh. Let’s get it right. C: Yeah. Yeah. Anything to do with+ A: Wow. C: +coach work is er+ A: Right. C: +fatal isn’t it. A: Now.As can be seen in the example taken from Cambridge Grammar of English a comprehensive guide spoken and written English Grammar and usage (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 165), understanding of the text depends on the context and the immediate situation. Example shows some of the units that can be frequently encountered in spoken grammar, such as indeterminate structures ellipted forms, incomplete structures, subordinate clauses not obviously connected to any particular main clause, interrupted structures with other speaker contributions intervening, words whose grammatical class is unclear.Conversation happens in real time and is spontaneous, therefore speakers make mistakes and we can observe common features of spoken grammar. Some sentences are confusing and hard to understand because we do not have the knowledge of the shared background of the conversation. It is difficult to represent speech in writing so that the reader could easily follow the written conversation. In order to do so there have to be made many remarks to explain what the speaker means. In real-time conversations emotions and vocal intonations are important to understand the speaker.Moreover, it is difficult to determine when the sentence starts and when it ends. This conversation is meant to illustrate precisely what is analysed in the term paper. Spoken Language and Interpersonal Communication In this paper only one part of spoken English will be discussed which is colloquial English. It is an informal interpersonal communication and has its own peculiarities. Conversations are typically carried out in face-to-face interaction with others. They are tied to the participants and the immediate situation. Speakers usually share a common contextual ackground and exchange meanings rather than the content of the message. Meanings will vary depending on the specific social, cultural and institutional knowledge (Biber, Conrad, Leech, 2002, 428). Grammar Characteristics Spoken language and written language coexist. They are not divided sharply but have many different characteristics. Therefore the grammar of colloquial English differs from the written one. There are many differences that could be mentioned; however, due to the limitation of space they remain outside the scope of this paper, which gives a brief overview of the main features of spoken English.Clause Combination In spoken English it is typical when the hierarchy of clauses in sentences is in discord. In real-time communication the speaker is not able to construct over-elaborate patterns of main and subordinate clauses. Usual are sequences of clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 170). Conjunctions are a grammatical resource to link text. In speech coordinating conjunctions are more frequent than in writing. Coordination is less empathic and more vague, which is characteristic of speech (Leech, Svartvik, 1983).Often subordinate clauses are used by one of the speakers to maintain the conversation or to give additional comments. They often occur after a pause to give evaluation to what have been said. Sometimes clauses â€Å"blend† in a sentence it happens when the beginning of a sentence is different from how it was completed. This syntactic structure is common in spoken language and is easily understood by the listener. (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 171): Well, no, Melanie’s actually still a student and she still has ten hours of lectures a week, so she works in McDonald’s in her spare time cos she needs the money and she works in McDonald’s in Hatfield†¦.Subordinate clauses: A: So I turned round and chased after him. B: Just as I would have done. Clausal blend: They ’ve nearly finished all the building work, hasn’t it? Position of items Spontaneous speech often requires adjustments to be made according to the communicative needs. Therefore it is natural when the speaker changes the position of items in a sentence in order to help the listener to the understand information better (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 172). In colloquial English subject-verb inversion often takes place.In informal speech it helps to emphasise the subject (Leech, Svartvik, 1983): B: I think your dad was amazed wasn’t he at the damage. Pausing, Repeating and Recasting There are two types of pauses: unfilled and filled. Unfilled pauses are just silent and quite short. They often indicate a change in the direction or the subject of the conversation. Filled pauses are marked by vocalisations, such as er, erm, uh or uhm. These marks can indicate a shift in the topic or that the speaker has not yet finished talking and is thinking of the best way to continue (Ca rter, McCarthy, 2006, 172).Repetition and recasting are very common in colloquial speech. When answering a question by repeating words or phrases the speaker can get some more time to think. Usually repetition occurs at the beginning of an utterance or clause. Recasting is normal in real-time speaking. It happens due to the fact that the speaker is talking very fast and needs to reformulate words or phrases (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 173-174): I spoke to her last night†¦well, she’s not going to take the job. It was, er, the director, wasn’t it? I, I’m, I’m not sure he’ll he’ll be able to arrange that at such short notice.Organising the discourse Spoken language seems quite unorganised. However, speakers often use specific words and structures to indicate how the speech will continue. For example items such as anyway, okay, right, I mean, so, now, etc. These items are named discourse markers. Structurally these markers do not belong to cla uses (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 174-175). One of the more frequent discourse markers in spoken English is like it is used to mark direct speech (Adolphs, Carter, 2003): Right, we’d better try to phone and see what they have to report.And they’re like, ‘Oh no. It’s all new panel. You can’t do this’. Ellipsis Ellipsis is the absence of elements required by the grammar. However the message doesn’t suffer and missing parts can be understood from the context. In most conversations ellipsis can be classified as initial ellipsis and final ellipsis in some cases also medial ellipsis takes place. In initial ellipsis, words at the beginning of the sentence are dropped, in correspondence in the medial ellipsis in the middle and in the final ellipsis at the end of a sentence (Biber, Conrad, Leech, 2002, 441-443).Also ellipsis can be categorised situational, textual or structural (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 181): Initial ellipsis: Didn’t know tha t film was on tonight. – I is omitted. Final ellipsis: A: I suppose Kathy is still living in that same place. B: Yeah, she is. – living in that same place omitted Medial ellipsis: Yeah dude, I’ gotta start working. – instead of I have got to Ellipsis is highly characteristic of spontaneous speech. During a conversation speakers need to reduce syntactic complexity due to real-time pressures.Ellipsis also takes place when avoiding unnecessary repetition and giving fast responses to other speakers (Biber, Conrad, Leech, 2002, 441). Response Tokens Response tokens are very common in spoken language. These are some adjectives and adverbs used to give quick and clear response to the speaking partner and to show that the user is listening and understands what is said to him. Such words include absolutely, definitely, great, fine, good, really. Some words have an association with a particular context. For example fine is used when making arrangements and reaching decisions.Response tokens help the listener to give quick feedback to the speaker, which is very convenient in case of a conversation (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 188-189): C: Yeah. Yeah. Anything to do with+ A: Wow. C: +coach work is er+ A: Right. C: +fatal isn’t it. A: Now. Vague Expressions Speakers tend to avoid aggressive or authoritative language and in order to sound polite and to soften the language vague expressions are used. The most common are stuff, like, anything, kind, whatever, sort of, etc. Vague expressions soften the information and often are used before some accurate or precise information (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 202-203).Sometimes these expressions are overused by the speaker: Between then and like nineteen eighty four I just spent the whole time, I mean for that whole sort of twelve year period or whatever, erm I was just working with just lots and lots of different people. Headers and Tails Headers and tails are very common features of spoken language. The y rarely occur in written English and seem very strange. A header occurs in a sentence where an item within a clause structure is placed before the clause and repeated in the clause itself. In other words the header stands in the initial position.Most typically header consists of a noun phrase and is followed by one or more pronouns. Headers are used by the speaker to help the listener to orientate in the facts (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 192-193): The teacher with glasses, he seems very nice. Tails are similar to headers; the difference is that these items are placed outside the clause structure. Tails are also typically noun phrases. Their purpose is to clarify something mentioned in the main clause. Usually tails clarify or repeat the referent of a pronoun (Carter, McCarthy, 2006, 194-196): They’re incredibly nice, our neighbours.Conclusion In conclusion it is possible to say that English spoken language has grammar. However there is still much to be researched. The need to i nvestigate spoken grammar is important in order to improve the speaking skills. In world where communications are developing so rapidly, spoken language and the mastery of it is an empowering skill. Writing is practiced everywhere in the world but the art of conversation is practiced rarely (Brazil, 1995, 11). Spoken grammar highlights the contextual and interpersonal aspects of communications. It is an interactive process and usually it is quite rapid.Therefore speakers use different structures in order to give quick comments or answers. Those structures include response tokens and ellipsis. Often the speaker changes the position of items in order to help the listener to understand the topic. In order to make the speech softer and less authoritative speakers use vague expressions. During the conversation the speaker often looses track of thoughts and therefore pauses, repetitions and recasting help to combine new clause structures. Many other characteristics of the grammar of spoke n English can be named.The knowledge of the grammar of spoken English is important for business communications. People need the necessary skills to express themselves in a best possible way. Studying this subject will provide a better understanding of grammar as a whole and can be a source of new knowledge. References Adolphs, S. , Carter, R. , 2003, And she’s like it’s terrible, like: Spoken Discourse, Grammar and Corpus Analysis, International Journal of English Studies Biber, D. , Conrad, S. , Leech, G. , 2002, Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited Brazil, D. 1995, A Grammar of speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press Carter R. , McCarthy m. , 2006, Cambridge Grammar of English a comprehensive guide spoken and written English Grammar and usage, Cambridge University Press Eggins, S. and D. Slade, 1996, Analyzing casual conversation. London: Cassell Leech G. , Svartvik J. , 1983, A communicative grammar of English, Moscow Prosveshchenie Leech G. , Svartvik J. , 2002, A communicative grammar of English 3d edition, London: Pearson ESL Leech, G. , n. d. , English Grammar in Conversation Lancaster: Lancaster University

The Economizing Problem

These Short Essays are partial fulfillment of Paper IE1001 of Part 1 of Certified Islamic Finance Professional (CIFP) [DRAFT V0. 4] INCEIFStudent Name: Mustafa AydemirStudent ID: 1200279 IE1001Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -1- Bismillahirrahmanirrahim The economizing problem – And its direct effect on the economy at large. A short essay from Islamic perspective by Mustafa Aydemir Human beings are greedy by nature and their needs are universally recognized as infinite.A simple prove for this statement is the wish of every person to live forever. The unlimited wants are the main reason that resources are considered insufficient or scarce. This is probably the strongest argument and a good justification to define an entire field of study to explain and solve the resulting economizing problem between unlimited needs versus limited resources. â€Å"Economics is the social science that studies the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants† (INCEIF Lecture Notes1), It is divided into Macro- and Microeconomics.The former is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole, and not just on a singular company, but entire industry sector and markets. Whereas, the latter focuses on supply and demand as well as other forces that determine the price levels seen in the economy. The previous section described the economizing problem, that is the relation between the scarcities or resources relative to ‘needs and wants’. People are self-interested economic agents that maximize their own utility by using goods and services (Williamson, 1985)2.In the capitalistic worldview, people are rational in their choices and would for example prefer a job paying 3000 USD salary over a job with a 1500 USD pay. The individual is looking after his own well-being, which is likely to increase by taking the higher income employment. 1 Title: Overview On Ec onomics; Class: Islamic Economics [IE1001]; Prof: Dr. Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin; Institution: INCEIF; Date: 8/16/2006 # Of Pages: 28 2 The Economic Institutions Of Capitalism; Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting; Oliver E.Williamson; Yale University IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -2- However, the well-being of all people needs to be guaranteed, which is well noted by theological, human and western researchers and recognized by all civilizations in the present and the past (Chapra, 1995)3. With the assumption that resources are limited, the well-being of the entire human race may remain just a dream if the scarce resources are not utilized efficiently and rightfully. In order to achieve this vision, societies develop effective strategies that can be considered as worldviews.For the sake of simplicity the (1) secular and the (2) religious worldviews are the only two that are subject to this essay. The s ecular worldview emphasis the importance of material aspects of well-being and disregards the religious aspect completely. The secularist argue that ‘maximum material’ well-being can be best realized if economic agents are given freedom to actualize their self-interest whatever it may be with regards to taste and preference and the guidance of God in any form is replaced by the help of human reasoning.Moreover, in this liberal view of secularism neither values nor government intervention can play a major role in the fair distribution of resources to achieve the well-being of all people. The liberal view has not succeeded and was overthrown nearly everywhere (Mirakhor, 2012)4. The need of people for social well-being is vital to the happiness of a human being. However, the secular worldview refers to market forces that would ensure social interests because competition will keep self-interest (that may lead to exaggerated greed) under control. 3 4 Chapra, M. Umer. (1995). Islam and the economic challenge.Leicester, U. K. : Islamic Foundation Abbas Mirakhor (2012).Lecture: Macroeconomic Policies & Islamic Finance. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: INCEIF IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -3- In contrary to the secular or capitalist worldview stands the religious or spiritual worldview. It gives tribute and attention to both the spiritual as well as the material aspects of human wellbeing. In fact, the spiritual worldview does not necessarily reject logical reasoning in human improvement, individual freedom or self-interest (Chapra, 1995).This worldview, however, highlights that moral values and good governance are required as restraining factors for freedom and self-interest in the journey of a reaching a civilization where well-being in ensured to all people and to achieve social harmony and family integrity. The direct effects of the economizing problem to a nations wealth are manif old. Well after capitalism had been established in medieval Europe and the west, its consequences in terms of unemployment and mal-distribution of income and wealth became painfully evident (Haferkamp and Smelser, 1992).Market cycles are considered part of an economy and crisis are accepted as unavoidable. The market itself is the overarching governance frame that determines prices through supply and demand and overrules the social interest of human beings. It is like an autocratic dictator without mercy that supports the rich and the powerful and penalizes the poor and the needy people. Consequently, societies began overtime to assign an increasingly expansive role to the government to correct the shortcomings of capitalism (market capitalism) with billion or even trillion dollar bailout packages for so called ‘to-big-to-fail’ institutions.All paid with tax money. Simultaneously however a contrary view developed objecting to the governments’ involvement in the e conomy on efficiency ground. Anyhow, even after the massive global financial crisis in 2007/2008 the high net-worth individuals are better off (see 5 Haferkamp, H. , & Smelser, N. J. (Eds. ). (1992). Social change and modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press. IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -4-Forbes Magazine6) and have more wealth than the middle class and low-income classes, likely due to cost cutting and austerity measures for companies and governments alike. The Islamic economic system is unique and provides a divine solution to the economizing problem this essay has elaborated thus far. It starts with the scarcity of resources that illustrates the issue quite clear. If we assume that resources are available in abundance (INCEIF Lecture Notes7) rather than limited, the paradigm shifts dramatically from strategies to accumulate wealth to strategies of wealth distribution.Wealth in Islam can be distributed by Zakah and Sadaqah but also by introducing a risk-sharing model into the financial system to replace it with interest (Askari, Iqbal, Krichene and Mirakhor, 2011)8. Islam recognizes differences in human potentials because each person is gifted with different skillsets and depth of abilities. Human beings are not identical is proof that no two individuals have identical capabilities. This differences will bring income and wealth inequalities in societies (Chapra, 1992)9. Furthermore, the self-interest and rational human aspects are fully endorsed but to a different end.Choices however are enhanced by ethical values and rules. Consider for example Islamic teachings where there is a sense of duty and obligation to follow rules of behavior and be in full compliance with them, often there are also some ends in view like Jannah (Paradise), the total well-being of society or approval and satisfaction of Allah. Even Allah’s love and mercy or fear of hell are motivato rs of a self-interested spiritual person. To the extent that ends is gaining strength over 6 7 The Worlds Billionaires List http://www. forbes. com/billionaires/ Retrieved on November 12, 2012Title: Overview On Economics; Class: Islamic Economics [IE1001]; Prof: Dr. Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin; Institution: INCEIF; Date: 8/16/2006 # Of Pages: 28 8 Hossein Askari, Zamir Iqbal, Noureddine Krichene and Mirakhor (2011) Risk-sharing in Finance: The Islamic Finance Alternative; Singapore: John Wiley & Sons 9 Chapra M (1992). â€Å"Islam and the Economic Challenge†, The Islamic Foundation and International Institute of Islamic Thought, London and Herndon. IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -5- the obligation and duty.Muslims may think of consequences in the hereafter more than over what was to be material well-being in this world. The position of Quran is in the first instance decoupling of actions from conseq uences, actions are done as a sense of duty to do what Allah teala and his beloved Messenger have ordered. At the same time, however, the Quran itself repeatedly emphasizes the desirable and undesirable consequences of actions (Lecture Notes Prof Mirakhor, 2012)10. In conclusion, Ibadah is the justification for rules. If one adores almighty Allah swt, one does what the creator orders.Hence, peoples unlimited wants are recognized and mentioned in the Quranic verse And ye love wealth with inordinate love: (al-Fajr 89:20)    and following hadith: Narrated Ibn ‘Abbas and Anas bin Malik: Allah’s Messenger said, â€Å"If a son of man had a valley full of gold, he would desire to have two. Nothing can fill his mouth except the earth (of the grave). Allah turns with mercy to him who turns to Him in repentance. †(Al-Bukhari and Muslim) That is why it may seem that Islamic economic system is probably the strongest alternative to greed and unfair markets that have led the world from crisis to crises. At least it is worth a try in the advanced economies. 10 Abbas Mirakhor (2012).Lecture: Macroeconomic Policies & Islamic Finance. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: INCEIF IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -6

Assignment 3-2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Ethic report for wind and solar and hydropower Essay - 1

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CIA Article Review and Anaylsis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

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DHSNo-MachRules and Safe Harbor Provisions for Employers Essay

DHSNo-MachRules and Safe Harbor Provisions for Employers - Essay Example SHA) will have the right to file complain to OSHA free of any legal charges as OSHA protects the employers by investigating on the legal complains that has been filed by the employees (U.S. Department of Labor, 2007). Aside from the complying with the OSHA guidelines, employers are also required to follow the rules as set by the Social Security Administration (SSA) (Lian, 2007). Employment law is not limited to issues related to employment discrimination related to race, age, and gender or the minimum wage and work benefits that each employee is entitled to; the law also protects the welfare of the local employees from any forms of accident that occurs within the workplace due to employers’ negligence to provide a safe working environment for employees or in any forms of threat which prohibits the local citizens from being able to have an opportunity for employment. Over the years, the increasing number of immigrant workers is said to be threatening the employment opportunity of the local residents. Since thousands of employers submit a ‘no-match’ employees’ name and the corresponding Social Security numbers as provided on Forms W-2 do not match the records of SSA each year (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2009), the District Court Judge Charles R. Greyer legally allowed the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to develop a new harbor safety rules that will address the court’s concern regarding the case of AFL-CIO v. Chertoff, Case No. 07-CV-4472 CRB (N.D. Cal.) back on December 2007 (Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP, 2007). As part of informing the general public regarding the new harbor safety rules, the DHS and SSA spread ‘a No-Match’ letter to those who are directly concerned with the issue (NAFSA, 2009). Aside from providing a brief summary regarding the AFL-CIO v. Chertoff case, the significance of spreading the â€Å"No-Match" rules and safe harbor provisions for employers will be thoroughly tackled in details. This paper aims to

Report project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Report project - Assignment Example The scenario is to supply the Marketing Manager with new ideas for places that we can entertain our best clientele after being wined and dined as a VIP. The Marketing Manager has suggested some places to take a look at, such as a play at the IRT (Indiana Repertory Theater), a play at Beef & Boards, a play or musical at Clowes or Murat, a special art exhibit at the IMA (Indianapolis Museum of Art), a special art exhibit at Eiteljorg, or a concert at the ISO (Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra). The design will be a report in memo format to be sent to the Marketing Manager in regards to this topic. I will compare and contrast the various locales of events for ways to entertain the company’s very best customers who come to our company’s facilities every fall to see the latest designs on our newest products. Every fall, we invite our best clientele to our facilities to see the latest products and concept designs for our new products before they hit the shelves. These members of our clientele are wined and dined like VIPs before we entertain them at a local venue. In the past we took them to either the Conseco Fieldhouse to see a Pacers game or to the Lucas Oil Stadium to see Peyton Manning and the Colts play. In the past we have bought a club level box seats at either Conseco Fieldhouse or Lucas Oil Stadium where we would go to a sporting event to entertain our guests. This memo is comparing other places in which we could entertain our clientele and have an enjoyable time. I know that this year the clientele have been invited to visit our company’s facilities from the 18th of October to the 20th of October. During this time period, there are various places we can take our guests to be entertained. At the IRT, Indiana Repertory Theatre, on the 18th at 6:30 PM and the 20th at 2:00 PM Robert Neal plays James Beard in ‘I Love to Eat: Cooking with James Beard’, while on the 19th at 7:30

Market Value and Change in Accounting Policy Essay

Market Value and Change in Accounting Policy - Essay Example Any organization in the market has to ensure that it chooses the correct accounting policy to attract more investors. The investors usually have an interest in studying the financial situation of the company to allow them to make an effective marketing decision. Insightfully, this means that the choice the company makes will affect the reflection and recording of financial statement to the investors. Consequently, the earning management by a company highly depends on the accounting policy that a firm uses in showing its financial position. Discussion The switch between FC and SE, as accounting methodologies, depending on the reasoning that one capitalizes while another expense the cost. Successful Efforts refers to the methodology where the unsuccessful exploration cost is expensed and usually integrated as part of the income statement. However, Full Cost involves capitalizing the unsuccessful exploration cost meaning that this cost is not part of the income statement in this situati on. The choosing of the two alternative methods relies on their effectiveness in achieving transparency related to the accounting information about oil and gas company’s earnings and cash flows. Based on the Successful Cost method, the objective of an oil and gas company is to produce oil or gas from its reserves hence the view that only the costs related to successful efforts are capitalized. On the other hand, the cost incurred is usually expensed, because successful results rely on the change in productive assets. Conversely, the FC method holds that the main objective of the oil and gas companies is to explore and develop oil and gas reserves. This implies that the costs incurred in the process of exploration and development should be capitalized followed by writing them off as the operation cycle continues. However, the regulatory approval from the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), which looks over the establishment of the governing GAAP, required the oil and gas companies to adopt the SE method. In rejecting the change from FC to SE method, the users argued that this could substantially depress reported earnings and equity figures; and increase the volatility of earnings over time. This means that a change from FC to SE will reduce the capabilities of the firm to raise capital in the stock market thereby leading to vulnerability to competition. The increased volatility of earnings implicates a limitation in the ability of the firms to carry out new explorations in the industry. To support its view on the potential effect coming with adopting FASB Exposure draft, the journal presents statistics showing that 70 out of 109 FC firms would have their average earnings reduced by at least 5%; and 86% of these companies will also witness at least a 5% decrease in their owner’s equity (Lev, 1979, p. 487). Impact of the change on cash flow The shift in the accounting method, from FC to SE had no impact on the cash flow albeit the decrease in the market value. A no-effect theory as stated by HOLTHAUSEN, argues that there is no effect on the stock price associated with the change in accounting policy (Holthausen & Leftwich, 1998, p. 114). The accounting methods are just a facade for the accounting numbers, available for the investors. The author notes that the firms, adopting policy change can unravel the accounting numbers, without spending any dollar, implying that the choice of accounting methods do not affect the wealth of the company.     Ã‚  

Native Son by Richard Wright Essay Example for Free

Native Son by Richard Wright Essay Richard Wright was determined to make a profound statement. In his novel, Native Son, he endeavors to present the â€Å"horror of Negro life in the United States† (Wright xxxiii). By addressing such a significant topic, he sought to write a book that â€Å"no one would weep over; that would be so hard and deep that they would have to face it without the consolation of tears† (xxvii). Native Son is a commentary on the poverty and helplessness experienced by blacks in America, and it illustrates the abhorrent ways that blacks were treated, describes their awful living conditions and calls attention to the half-hearted efforts offered by white sympathizers. Told from the perspective of his character Bigger Thomas, Wright crafts a story depicting the oppressive lives endured by Negroes and makes it so despicable that it grabs the attention of the reader and forces him to reevaluate the state of society. There is much in this novel that would cause a reader to cry, but, to Wright’s point, the topic is so significant that it resonates more deeply and elicits a deeper response. Bigger Thomas is the protagonist of the novel, but, to Wright, Bigger also exemplifies African Americans of the time. He is barely educated, struggling to find meaningful work and living in an overcrowded slum with his family; just like many others around him. Bigger is frustrated with his place in life and finds it difficult to understand why the opportunities that are available to whites are not available to him. During an exchange with his friend Gus, Bigger exclaims, â€Å"Goddammit, look! We live here and they live there. We black and they white. They got things and we ain’t. They do things and we can’t. It’s like living in jail† (23). Bigger and Gus have no outlet to express their individuality or emotions. Their feelings towards whites are ingrained in them. Bigger states, â€Å"[Whites live] right down here in my stomach†¦Every time I think of ‘em, I feel ‘em†¦It’s like fire†¦That’s when I feel like something awful’s going to happen to me†¦Naw; it ain’t like something going to happen to me. It’s†¦It’s like I was going to do something I can’t help† (24). This statement summarizes how the everyday black man feels about his station in life and the opportunities available to him. Additionally, it foreshadows the heinous events that will unfold later in the novel. A turning point in Wright’s story comes when Bigger is offered a job as a chauffeur for the Dalton family. Mr. Dalton is a white real estate mogul that prides himself for being a member of the NAACP. He employs young black men in an attempt to rehabilitate them. On the surface, this is an ideal opportunity for Bigger because it provides room and board and pays well enough to allow him to take care of his mother and siblings, but Wright is looking to emphasize how the trivial the actions taken by the white sympathizers do not actually address the challenges faced by the African American population. Bigger is not overwhelmed by this opportunity or impressed that the last chauffeur had gone to night school. Moreover, this job ultimately places Bigger in a situation that he cannot control, and he accidentally smothers Dalton’s daughter, Mary. Bigger realizes, â€Å"Though he had killed by accident, not once did he feel the need to tell himself that it had been an accident. He was black and he had been alone in a room where a white girl had been killed; therefore he had killed her† (101). This is the â€Å"awful† event that Bigger alluded to earlier in the story. Killing Mary elicits feelings in Bigger that he had never experienced before. Bigger acknowledges, â€Å"He was more alive than he could ever remember having been; his mind and attention were pointed, focused toward a goal† (141). Bigger embraced these feelings and continued with a scheme to make everyone believe that Mary had been kidnapped. With the assistance of his girlfriend Bessie, he plans to escape with $10,000 in ransom money. Wright uses Bigger’s emotions and his heightened sense of awareness at this point in the novel to comment on society at the time. Wright is stating that the act of murder is one of the only ways for young African American men to express themselves, to exert any independence and to get out from under the oppression of their daily life. When the authorities realize that Bigger is the killer he flees to avoid being captured, but he realizes that â€Å"all his life he had been knowing that sooner or later something like this would come to him† (207). Survival becomes paramount to Bigger, escaping the law is his only priority, and Bessie becomes a liability. While attempting to hide from the police, Bigger realizes that it will be easier to escape without traveling with Bessie. In a tense scene, Bigger first rapes Bessie, lets her fall to sleep and finally bludgeons her. His actions are methodical as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"he lifted the brick again and again, until in falling it struck a sodden mass that gave softly but stoutly to each landing blow. Soon he seemed to be striking a wet wad of cotton, of some damp substance whose only life was the jarring of the brick’s impact† (222). Ultimately this second murder is unnecessary, as Bigger is soon apprehended. Bigger is arrested and indicted for the murder of Mary Dalton, and the character that Wright chooses to defend him is a white, Jewish attorney, named Boris Max. In the novel, Max takes the time to talk to Bigger and understand the actions in his life that have influenced him. For the first time in his life, Bigger has someone interested in his thoughts and feelings, which result in Bigger beginning finding hope. Max does his best to motivate Bigger to fight to save his own life. Max pleads, â€Å"Listen Bigger, you’re facing a sea of hate now that’s no different than what you’ve faced all your life. And, because it’s that way, you’ve got to fight. If they can wipe you out, then they can wipe others out too† (320). Throughout this section of the book Bigger undergoes a transformation. By explaining his actions and feelings to Max, he finally emerges from the shell he has created around himself. Max works hard to understand the issues in Bigger’s life that culminated in his actions and the violence he exerted against Mary and Bessie, and he uses this information to form his defense. Although the crimes that Bigger committed were horrific, the reader begins to sympathize with him as he describes more about himself and his feelings to Max as the story comes to a conclusion. Wright’s goal with this novel was to evoke empathy for Bigger and to make a statement regarding the treatment of blacks at the time. Wright uses Max’s closing statement to the judge to summarize all of the points he wants the reader to contemplate. Max combines everything that he learns about Bigger and weaves it together with the plight of the blacks during the time and eloquently argues that Bigger should be sentenced to life in prison, rather than to execution. Max argues, â€Å"This man is different, even though his crime differs from similar crimes only in degree. The complex forces of society have isolated here for us a symbol, a test symbol† (354). Through Max’s monologue, the reader more clearly understands all of the factors that  have contributed to the creation of Bigger and others like him, and he pleads with the judge to understand that there are larger forces in play, other than the specific crime that Bigger committed. Unfortunately, despite Max’s valiant attempts, the â€Å"sentence of the Court is that you, Bigger Thomas, shall die on or before midnight of Friday, March third, in a manner prescribed by the laws of this state† (381). Initially, it would appear that with Bigger’s execution, Wright fails in his attempt to move people to reevaluate the racial injustice of the times, but the conclusion is actually Wright’s acknowledgement that society was not quite ready to change.

Economic development Essay Example for Free

Economic development Essay Economic development and economic growth are both indicators of the economic position of the country. Economic growth is the growth in gross domestic product and economic development is related to growth in the standard of living and poverty. As you can see economic growth and economic development are not the same thing, economic development is far more than just growth in GDP as it involves indicators that are not purely economically related. However economic growth is an indicator of economic development but there are also several other factors that represent economic development. These indicators are; life expectancy at birth, infant mortality rate, daily calorie supply per capita, adult literacy rate, number of doctors per 1000 people, average years of schooling, availability of clean water, freedom of press, immunisation rates and levels of discrimination. As you can see these are generally not economic indicators but when they are combined they form the economic development figure. There are fifteen barriers to economic development, the first of these being a lack of physical capital. Lack physical capital is a significant barrier to the development of a country for several reasons. There is already a shortage of capital that further leads to less capital being produced; this creates significant problems for developing countries. In these countries the income levels are low leading to low savings and therefore little money for investment in capital. This lack of capital furthers the low productivity therefore the employment remains low. This also leads to a lack of demand for goods and services the low demand means that less needs to be produced therefore less capital needs to be produced. This then forces the country into a cycle of underdevelopment. This consequently creates a barrier for the country to develop. An example of this is in most less developed countries where they are in constant times of war and civil unrest. Their capital is destroyed through war making it difficult for the country to produce more capital. Also, Sierra Leone, the worlds least developed country, as shown by the human development index, has a GDP per capita of US$159 this creates significant problems for the economy and its development. A lack of human capital is the next barrier to development. This barrier is created through a lack of education and training of the population. It also relates to the general heath and wellbeing of the population. If the labour-force are getting sick then they are unable to work and therefore decreasing the labour capital. A current example of this situation is in South Africa. In South Africa the micro-economic impact of AIDS is very serious and is getting worse. Among skilled workers HIV prevalence is expected to peak between a fifth and a quarter percent by the year 2000, which is consequently depleting the number of skilled workers creating the lack of capital development barrier. These problems are also leading to a rise in insurance bills and the costs of health benefits rise. This therefore diverts government savings to pay for health care and as a result the availability of funds for investment will fall. AIDS is predicted to knock 0.3 to 0.4 percent off the annual growth rate. As you can see this is a severe barrier to development in these less developed countries. A strategy to this barrier is human resource development. The next barrier to development is a lack of savings. This also causes low levels of investment due to the low income leading to low savings. This low level of savings is also caused by several other reasons such as; poorly developed financial markets, holding of savings in traditional non-money forms, the purchase of unnecessary luxury items, cheap family labour reducing the incentive to save for investment and the general indebtedness of the population. The low incentive to reinvest profits by businesses also reduces the savings. Budget deficits by the government to make up for the low taxation revenue are also decreasing the amount being saved. When there is a lack of savings caused by any of these causes it forces the need to borrow form overseas that consequently leads to problems with the balance of payments. An example of lack of savings exists in Nigeria. In Nigeria there are severe problems with their currency. These begin with significant fraud problems also the majority of trading is done with cash in which until recently the currency did not exceed the equivalent of 50 cents. The next problem is that they dont believe in banks, the only use of banks is to exchange foreign currencies for tourists, which leads to a lack of funds for investments. Also, Local traders keep all working capital stuffed in coca jars, as they believe business opportunities will disappear in the time it takes to make a withdrawal. Banks do not allow credit due to the fear of not being repaid. All of these factors contribute to a large barrier to development simply due to a lack of savings. This could be solved through improving the financial system. Another barrier to development is a lack of taxation revenue. A lack of taxation creates barriers as it means the government has little finances to use on economic development. The high unemployment, very low-income levels and difficulties in tax collection cause this lack of tax revenue. The government is then forced to collect tax mainly from customs duties, sales taxes and excises. These taxes can prove to be very inflationary and are also regressive. Another problem with these taxes is that they discourage investment and the creation of employment. Nigeria also has a problem with the collection of taxation. Most Nigerians that can afford to avoid paying taxes, as they believe that their money will be flinched by the corrupt government. This creates severe problems for the country, as there is no money for the government to use in investment to promote economic development. Improving the financial system will also help solve this barrier. The next barrier to entry is a lack of infrastructure. Less developed countries rarely have a sufficient supply of necessities such as roads, ports, sewerage, power schools or water- facilities etc. The main reason that this infrastructure is not being made is that the government simply cannot raise the funds to finance them due to their lack of taxation revenue. Another reason maybe that the government has chosen to finance defence spending or if they are in time of war, in which most LCDs are. A lack of infrastructure restricts the free flow of goods and services and reduces the productivity of the labour force that further restricts the economic development of the country. In Africa infrastructure is very underdeveloped compared to the other less developed regions. They have 6 phone lines for every 1000 people compared to the average of 54 for other developing regions. Also their power supply is far less than the average of 300kw per 1000 peoples with 80kw this significantly stops their development. In Nigeria there are serious problems with infrastructure causing business uncertainty. Telephones rarely work and the electric comes in periodic vengeful surges. Nigerian firms, particularly the state-owned ones due to the lack of taxation, devote little effort into maintaining their infrastructure and it therefore ends up breaking down. Reliable firms are so hard to come by that firms barter contacts: well let you share the electricity from our generator if you can help us find spare parts for it. Firms wanting to set up in Nigeria face the problem known locally as BYOI (bring your own infrastructure) this shows how much of a problem infrastructure is in Nigeria. A lack of infrastructure could be solved in many ways such as encouraging enterprise, human resource development or improving the financial system. A lack of entrepreneurs is another barrier to economic development. Enterprise is essential in order for development to occur, as it is one of the key factors to production. In the less developed countries there tens to be a lack of entrepreneurs for several reasons. The first of these is the fact that there is a limited opportunity to make a profit, due to the lack of demand. The next reason is that the businesses not easily financed due to the low level of savings. The lack of infrastructure available also distracts these entrepreneurs. Another reason to the lack of entrepreneurs is that cultural beliefs often place little importance on monetary gain and entrepreneurs are thus given little status. The number of entrepreneurs is also reduced by the lack of education in these countries. The final reason is that it is risky for an entrepreneur due to the political and economic instability. An example of a lack of entrepreneurs is also in Nigeria as it closely relates to the lack of the infrastructure. The lack of infrastructure adds at least 25 percent onto a firms operating costs if it choses to set up in Nigeria, this is a significant deterrent for firms to set up and should be solved if the county wants to achieve economic development. A strategy that could be adopted to help this situation is encouraging enterprise. The next barrier to economic development is a lack of technology. There are several reasons why these less developed countries are not more technologically advanced. The first reason being that most new technology will involve some investment in capital that is lacking in these less developed countries. Also another problem is that the new technology will need skilled labour to operate it but skilled labour is also of shortage in a LCD. The next reason is that companies dont really want to adopt labour saving technology when they already have cheap labour and there are high unemployment rates. The final reason that there is a lack of technology is that new technology is used to facilitate the achievement of economies of scale and the small markets in LCDs reduce the incentive to mass-produce. The governments however, have managed to encourage technology into these LCDs and most currently use modern technology that compliments the labour so workers maintain their jobs. A lot of the modern technology used in these counties is generally used in the foreign owned industries where they mass-produce in order to export to advanced markets. Over population and rapid population growth is another factor that causes a barrier to development. In these less developed countries the birth rates are often five times higher than in the more developed countries. The advances of medicine have also caused a fall in the deaths, which leads to a higher population growth. The growth of these countries is generally around 2 percent and their growth is usually below this figure, which therefore worsens the situation, and the real GNP per capita often falls. In the more advanced countries they generally have population growth of around 0.5 percent and their economic growth will usually be higher than that. This is where the widening gap occurs pushing less developed countries further away from more advanced countries. This high growth of the population also has the effect of increasing the labour force, but as there is little demand for labour the unemployment rate will tend to rise. Also, most of this population is below 15 or above 65 meaning they are unable to contribute o production but still need things such as food, water, clothing and shelter. This creates a problem known as dependency burden making development even harder. Governments in these LDCs fight a tough battle with a rapid growing population and are always trying to slow this rate but they face several problems such as poor education, communication, lack of contraception and cultural attitudes. Africa is currently the fastest growing of all the developing regions with a growth rate of 3 percent over the past decade but with this high growth rate comes several associated problems. Africa has one doctor for every 20,000 people compared to an average 5000 people in developing countries and its infant mortality rate is the highest at 96 per thousand births almost double the developing countries average. Africans also have a life expectancy of 52 years where the average for developing countries is 64. As you can see that the effects of a high population are not beneficial to a developing country. This barrier to development can be solved with the population control strategy. The next barrier to development is inflation. Inflation in these countries is caused by the scare amounts of goods and services relative to the high population consequently causing demand pull inflation. The domestic supply is unable to match the domestic demand. The inflation rates in many of these countries gets above 200 percent compared to that of around 5 percent in most advanced countries. This high inflation has many unwanted effects such as decreased living standards and a reduction in real income, it also tends to redistribute the income from the poor to the wealthy therefore increasing the income inequality that already exists. A high inflation rate also causes the investment of non-productive assets such as antiques or gold, this money is therefore taken out of the economy reducing the funds available for investment. These high inflation rates also cause a reduction in the competitiveness of exporters and import competing firms that therefore leads to an increase in the countries current account deficit. Another effect that inflation will lead to is a falling exchange rate, which if the country has a large foreign debt will make it even harder to pay. Inflation is very high in most of the African countries and causes severe problems to their economy and development progress. Balance of payments problems is also another barrier to development of these less developed countries. The majority of LCDs have problems with their external balance as the little income they do earn is used on imports and used to pay off interest on their foreign debts. As these countries are in deficit they are continually forced to borrow from overseas to finance their payments worsening their current account deficit even more. Many of these countries are also suffering from worsening terms of trade that also decreases their export revenue and thus further worsening their balance of payments. The WTO worldwide reduction of tariffs will help to assist this but government policies need to be implemented to seriously boost export revenue and turn the consumers away from imports. The strategy to help the balance of payments is import replacement. The next barrier to development that LCDs face is a depletion of their natural resources. Many of these countries are highly dependent on one major export to create export revenue, create growth, employment and income and the reduction in the current account deficit. This creates problems as they may deplete natural resources without considering future production. This reduces the potential for further future development and growth. In Mauritius, they have cleared 25 percent of their forests in the last 19 years purely for export. This causes massive environmental effects and also is a serious concern, as when the resources run out the countrys economy will fail to stay afloat. This is the same in many less developed countries including many African counties and their dependency on oil. It can be helped with export development to have a wider range of exports and less dependency on one major export. Another significant barrier to economic development in these less developed countries is corruption and poor administration by the government. Corruption is a very common problem in LDCs. The problem associated with this is that aid and government revenue is not all used in promoting growth, corrupt leaders and government officials take most of it. When a government is corrupt it causes most of their aid to be withdrawn forcing them to reform their political structures. This withdrawal of overseas assistance causes depletions in general living standards of the country. Another problem with these governments is that they know little or nothing about economics. These leads to several problems including poor administration and efficiency these lead to a poor ability to promote development. An example of this is in Nigeria where it has been estimated that in the last twenty years over two billion dollars of oil revenue from the country has been embezzled. This is mainly due to their last dictator who ordered the Nigerian Central Bank to deposit 15 million dollars a day into his own Swiss bank account. This works out to twenty percent of GDP and when you take into consideration that their NFD is over 40 percent of GDP, the country is not left with much money. A strategy that has been put into place for this specific barrier is the refusal to lend money to Nigeria from IMF. Natural disasters are another barrier to development in less developed countries. The effects of natural disasters such as floods or droughts have a much greater impact on less developed countries compared to that of advanced countries. Most LCDs are prone to these natural disasters, which is a significant factor to their underdevelopment. In India they have times of severe droughts and flooding where 80 million people were affected. This has severely decreased their agriculture production and is consequently creating a barrier to their development. There is not much that can be done about natural disasters but do adjust to them and to adopt new ways to cope with them. Another significant factor preventing the development of less developed countries is war and civil unrest. Many LCDs are in constant war and civil unrest, this causes several problems with development. The first of these problems is that entrepreneurs are discouraged by the countries instability also important infrastructure is destroyed and governments spend their little taxation revenue on maintaining order or producing weapons. Economies in war torn countries are unlikely to be operating at full capacity making it hard for development to occur. In Rwanda civil wars in the nineties have claimed the lives of almost 1,000,000 Rwandans. Most of the aid to the country was invested in weaponry and therefore not used in promoting economic development, as it should have been. This is how civil wars can create barriers to development. The only solution to this is to end the wars and focus the spending into promoting economic development. The final barrier to development is a lack of press freedom. Press freedom involves the exchange of ideas, criticism of government and increased awareness of world events and developments. This is something that most LCDs do not have and therefore their economic development is limited. In Mexico the government allowed Televisa to have a monopoly in the television market if they didnt play any anti-government shows and supported the government. In the eighties journalists were killed by the police in Mexico City if they published any anti-government articles. This is serious problem in these less developed countries and is usually the result of government corruption. The first strategy to promote economic development in these less developed countries is export development. This strategy involves assisting those producers who export to overseas markets. An increase in export development will earn foreign exchange and create unemployment and income and also help to solve problems with the balance of payments. The next strategy to promoting development is import replacement. Import replacement involves the shifting of demand away from imports and towards the domestically produced products. This can be done in several ways including the induction of tariffs on imports making them more expensive relative to the domestic product. This also encourages foreign investment as the foreign firms wish to have the same protection. Assisting domestic producers financially is another way of promoting this economic development, by subsidising and offering tax incentives to local producers it will increase their competitiveness with imports by the lower costs of production. However, replacing imports is only a short-term solution and therefore policies promoting long-term development must be applied. Human resource development is the next strategy to development. This development involves improving the size of the labour force and also the skills of the labour force. The labour force can be increased through improved health care and skills can be attained through things such as training and education. In Nigeria the World Bank is currently funding an $80 million project into their education as well as building a better and more consistent water supply. Also In Malaysia education investment has been amongst their highest priorities for decades, they have spent $731 million on improving their education levels to the level they are currently at Another way to promote economic development in these less developed countries is through encouraging enterprise. In most LDCs there is a lack of entrepreneurs, in order to increase the quantity there are several solutions such as improving management and leadership training and tax incentives, subsidies and free loans. Cuba has introduced a group of people called the cuentapropistas, 170,000 entrepreneurs marking the arrival of a new business sector in the islands socialist economy. They account for 8% of the labour force and manage to put food on the table for one in ten Cubans. These new small businesses have been a result of reduced subsidies to state enterprises, increased foreign investment, and introduction of incentives in the agricultural sector and the legalisation of dealings in foreign currency. This has already had positive signs on the Cuban economy with growth in 1998 at 8 percent some 31percent higher than two years previous. Population control is another strategy to economic development. Rapid population growth is unwanted as it creates problems such as inflation and scarcity and therefore more poverty. There are plenty of methods that can be put into place to slow population growth. Some of these methods include maximum children policy such as Chinas one child policy and free supplies of contraception. The Grameen bank is another contributor to helping population control in Bangladesh. The bank issue loans to woman and as part of the conditions to borrowing the money they must agree to have small families. This has proved to be a successful program all across the world and has helped to promote the small-scale development of many less developed countries. The next strategy to promote economic development is increasing the agricultural productivity. Agriculture is usually a major sector in the less developed countries and thus improving its productivity will significantly promote development. Improving the agriculture productivity can be done in many ways. Some of these include merging small farms to create larger more efficient ones and encouraging owner operators to increase the incentive to improve productivity there also several other ways in which these countries can improve their agricultural productivity. With 75 percent of the population living in rural areas, improving the efficiency of Indias agriculture is the key to attaining high growth and reducing poverty. Accelerating rural development and poverty reduction requires cutting spending on input subsidies; investing in rural infrastructure; providing more effective rural services, especially to the poor and socially excluded; improving management of water, forests, and other natural resources; liberalizing the rural economy, including the rural financial system. In the heart of Indias poorest region, the Bihar Plateau Development Project is increasing access to much-needed irrigation and safe drinking water by tribal communities and raising their incomes through the diversification of rural livelihoods. The project aims to reach 4.5 million people through a variety of institutional mechanisms, including water and sanitation committees, water user associations, and income generation schemes, all aiming to transfer skills and enhance peoples capabilities so that the benefits may be sustained once the project ends. This is one way in which India is proving to increase its agricultural produc tivity. Another strategy to promoting economic development is by adopting intermediate technology. If a less developed country invested in new technology it may be forgiving employment possibilities, as most new technology is very labour intensive, this will consequently lead to a fall in employment. As these countries have an abundance of labour it is much easier, cost effective and better for the economy if they use intermediate technology that still requires high levels of labour. An example of this is Fred Hollows, Hollows uses local resources to create employment income and economic growth through the training of people to perform the medical tasks and also employment in the factories where the lens are created. The final strategy to promote economic development is to improve the financial system. In these economies there is a lack of savings and an insufficient financial system, this creates major barriers to development. Thus policies need to be adopted to improve this situation that promote growth and employment without generating high levels of inflation. The World Banks Executive Board approved a $506 million loan to support financial sector adjustment and reform in Colombia. The loan is part of a revised World Bank strategy for Colombia that includes intensified lending to help the country promote peace, ease the impact of the recession on the poor, and rebuild after their earthquake. It is also part of a $1.4 billion package to help bolster Colombias economy. This financial sector adjustment loan reflects the World Banks confidence in Colombias wide-ranging reform strategy, which is critical to its effort to overcome the recession, said Andres Solimano, director of the Banks program i n Colombia. The financing of many of these strategies is usually funded through institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund institutions. The World Bank is a major force behind the development of less developed countries as it gives issues discounted loans to most of these countries. Another way that these countries can fund their development is through overseas aid. The are large amounts of money flowing out of the developed countries from governments and other aid organizations as aid into the less developed countries hoping to achieve economic development. For all of these less developed countries to achieve economic development, an effort from all developed countries with aid and advice must be contributed, but until then the world will not have any chance of abolishing poverty. References: IFC Building the private sector in Africa The Economist January 15th 2000 survey Nigeria World bank Rwanda development project The Economist May 27th Aids impact in South Africa World Bank Cubas Cuentapropistas World Bank Indias development The Grameen Bank Economic Development in Bangladesh The Economist May 27th Growth is good The Economist Feb 22nd Televista World Bank press release, 11th June 1998

Self-healing Materials and Shape Memory Polymers

Self-healing Materials and Shape Memory Polymers Topic Area: self-healing materials, shape memory polymers and flame retardant polymers Emerging Polymer materials       Md Hossion Shovon Introduction: The ability of a nation to harness nature as well as its ability to cope up with the challenges posed by it is determined by its complete knowledge of materials and its ability to develop and produce them for various applications. Advanced Materials are at the heart of many technological developments that touch our lives. Electronic materials for communication and information technology, optical fibers, laser fibers sensors for the intelligent environment, energy materials for renewable energy and environment, light alloys for better transportation, materials for strategic applications and more. Advanced materials have a wider role to play in the upcoming future years because of its multiple uses and can be of a greater help for whole humanity. Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent progressive developments within a field for competitive advantage. List of currently emerging technologies, which contains some of the most prominent ongoing developments, a dvances, and Materials Science and Nanotechnology Innovations are Graphene, Fullerene, Conductive Polymers, Metamaterials, Nanomaterials: carbon nanotubes, Superalloy, Lithium-ion batteries, etc. Over the last decade, smart polymeric materials have been used in biochemical sciences in many ways. Since the term, smart polymeric materials encompasses a wide spectrum of different compounds with unique potential for biological applications, Self-healing Polymers: Self-healing polymers are a new class of smart materials that have the capability to repair themselves when they are damaged without the need for detection or repair by manual intervention of any kind. Increasing demand for petroleum feedstocks used to produce polymer and the need for polymeric materials with improved performance in challenging applications continue to drive the need for materials with extended lifetimes. One way to extend the lifetime of a material is to mitigate the mechanism leading to failure. In brittle polymers, failure occurs through crack formation and propagation (1,2) and the ability to repair these cracks when they are still very small will prevent further propagation thus extending the lifetime of the material. Emerging self-healing technologies designed to give polymeric materials the capability to arrest crack propagation at an early stage thereby preventing catastrophic failures will go a long way in helping to increase the scope of applications of the se materials. With the need for autonomic repair of materials without external intervention thus evident, more recent research has focused on developing fully self-healing systems. One approach to the design of such systems employs the compartmentalization of a reactive healing agent, which is then incorporated into a composite material. Thus, when a crack propagates through the material, it causes the release of the healing agent from the compartment in which it is stored into the crack plane where it solidifies and repairs the material. The first basic application of this approach consisted of an epoxy matrix with suspended glass capillaries filled with either cyanoacrylate or a two-part epoxy resin. When a crack propagated through the cured epoxy matrix, the glass capillaries were fractured and the cyanoacrylate monomer or the two-part epoxy generally referred to as healing agents, were released into the crack plane where they reacted and polymerized. A significant recovery of the mechanical properties of the samples after they were allowed to heal suggests that the cracked material was effectively repaired by the polymerized healing agent. Since the healing requires only crack propagation as the trigger for the healing mechanism, it represents a truly autonomic or self-healing material. While a successful demonstration of self-healing, the labor-intensive process of manually filling capillaries and distributing them evenly throughout the matrix make this approach unsuitable for scale-up. Shape-memory Polymers: Shape-memory polymers are an emerging class of active polymers that have the dual-shape capability. They can change their shape in a predefined way from shape A to shape B when exposed to an appropriate stimulus. While shape B is given by the initial processing step, shape A is determined by applying a process called programming. The shape-memory research was initially founded on the thermally induced dual-shape effect. This concept has been extended to other stimuli by either indirect thermal actuation or direct actuation by addressing stimuli-sensitive groups on the molecular level. Finally, polymers are introduced that can be multifunctional. Besides their dual-shape capability, these active materials are biofunctional or biodegradable. Potential applications for such materials as active medical devices are highlighted. Shape-memory polymers are dual-shape materials belonging to the group of actively moving polymers. They can actively change from a shape A to a shape B. Shape A is a temporary shape that is obtained by mechanical deformation and subsequent fixation of that deformation. This process also determines the change of shape shift, resulting in shape B, which is the permanent shape. In shape-memory polymers reported so far, heat or light has been used as the stimulus. Using irradiation with infrared light, application of electric fields, alternating magnetic fields, or immersion in water, indirect actuation of the shape memory effect has also been realized. The shape-memory effect only relies on the molecular architecture and does not require a specific chemical structure in the repeating units. Therefore, intrinsic material properties, e.g. mechanical properties, can be adjusted to the need of specific applications by variation of molecular parameters, such as the type of monomer or the comonomer ratio. An example of a cross-linked polymer network synthesized by polyaddition of monofunctional monomers with low molecular weight or oligomeric cross-linkers has been realized in polyurethanes by the addition of trimethyl owl to the reaction mixture. The reaction of tetra-functional silanes, working as net points, with oligomeric silanes, which work as spacers and to which two distinct benzoate-based mesogenic groups have been attached, results in a formation of a main-chain smectic-C elastomer38. In contrast to other liquid-crystalline elastomers, which display a shape-changing behavior and have been compared to shape-memory polymers recently, these elastomers have shape-memory properties. The cross-linking process during synthesis defines the permanent shape. The shape-memory effect is triggered by the thermal transition of the liquid-crystalline domains. In the programming process, the polymer network is heated to the isotropic state of the liquid crystalline domains, stretched or twisted, and then cooled below the clearing transition temperature of the smectic-C mesogens. Upon reheating over this clearing transition, the permanent shape can be recovered. In contrast to shape-changing liquid crystalline elastomer systems, thes e polymers display shape-memory behavior because the liquid crystalline moieties work as a switch. In shape-changing liquid-crystalline elastomers, the molecular movement of the single liquid crystals is converted into a macroscopic movement Another class of thermoplastic shape memory polymers with Trans = Tg are polyesters. In copolyesters based on poly(Ɇº-caprolactone) and poly (butylene terephthalate), the poly (butylene terephthalate) segments act as physical cross-linkers25. The shape-memory capability can also be added to a polymer using a polymer-analogous reaction. A polymer-analogous reaction is the application of a standard organic reaction (like the reduction of a ketone to an alcohol) to a polymer having several of these reactive groups. An example is the polymer-analogous reduction of a polyketone with NaBH4/THF, which results in a poly(ketone-co-alcohol). The polyketones are synthesized by late transition metal catalyzed polymerization of propene, hex-1-ene, or a mixture of propane and hex-1-ene with CO. The Tg of this polymer is directly related to the degree of reduction, which can be adjusted by the amount of NaBH4/THF. The most promising shape-memory material is a partly reduced poly (ethylene -co-propane-co-carbon oxide), which displayed a phase-separated morphology with hard microcrystalline ethylene/CO-rich segments within a softer amorphous polyketone ethylene-propene/CO-rich matrix. The crystalline domains of this material work as physical cross-linkers. This results in an elastic behavior above Tg because the glass transition temperature (Trans = Tg) is related to the switching phase. Partial reduction of the material allows control of Tg, which can be adjusted from below room temperature to 75 °C. Flame-retardant Polymers: Fire-safe polymers are polymers that are resistant to degradation at high temperatures. There is need for fire-resistant polymers in the construction of small, enclosed spaces such as skyscrapers, boats, and airplane cabins. In these tight spaces, ability to escape in the event of a fire is compromised, increasing fire risk. In fact, some studies report that about 20% of victims of airplane crashes are killed not by the crash itself but by ensuing fires. Fire-safe polymers also find application as adhesives in aerospace materials, insulation for electronics and in military materials such as canvas tenting. Some fire-safe polymers naturally exhibit an intrinsic resistance to decomposition, while others are synthesized by incorporating fire-resistant additives and fillers. Current research in developing fire-safe polymers is focused on modifying various properties of the polymers such as ease of ignition, rate of heat release, and the evolution of smoke and toxic gases. Standard methods for testing polymer flammability vary among countries; in the United States common fire tests include the UL 94 small-flame test, the ASTM E 84 Steiner Tunnel, and the ASTM E 622 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) smoke chamber. Research on developing fire-safe polymers with more desirable properties is concentrated at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and at the Federal Aviation Administration where a long-term research program on developing fire-safe polymers was begun in 1995. The Center for UMass/Industry Research on Polymers (CUMIRP) was established in 1980 in Amherst, MA as a concentrated cluster of scientists from both academia and industry for the purpose of polymer science and engineering research. Controlling the flammability of different materials has been a subject of interest since 450 B.C. when Egyptians attempted to reduce the flammability of wood by soaking it in potassium aluminum sulfate (alum). Research on fire-retardant polymers was bolstered by the need for new types of synthetic polymers in World War II. The combination of a halogenated paraffin and antimony oxide was found to be successful as a fire retardant for canvas tenting. Synthesis of polymers, such as polyesters, with fire retardant monomers were also developed around this time.. Additives are divided into two basic types depending on the interaction of the additive and polymer. Reactive flame retardants are compounds that are chemically built into the polymer. They usually contain heteroatoms. Additive flame retardants, on the other hand, are compounds that are not covalently bound to the polymer; the flame retardant and the polymer are just physically mixed together. Only a few elements are being widely used in this field: aluminum, phosphorus, nitrogen, antimony, chlorine, bromine, and in specific applications magnesium, zinc and carbon. One prominent advantage of the flame retardants (FRs) derived from these elements is that they are relatively easy to manufacture. The most important flame retardants systems used act either in the gas phase where they remove the high energy radicals H and OH from the flame or in the solid phase, where they shield the polymer by forming a charred layer and thus protect the polymer from being attacked by oxygen and heat. Fl ame retardants based on bromine or chlorine, as well as a number of phosphorus compounds act chemically in the gas phase and are very efficient. Others only act in the condensed phase such as metal hydroxides (aluminum trihydrate, or ATH, magnesium hydroxide, or MDH, and boehmite), metal oxides and salts (zinc borate and zinc oxide, zinc hydroxystannate), as well as expandable graphite and some nanocomposites (see below). Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are also effective in the condensed phase, and as they also may act in the gas phase, they are quite efficient flame retardants. Overviews of the main flame retardants families, their mode of action and applications are given in. Besides providing satisfactory mechanical properties and renewability, natural fibers are easier to obtain and much cheaper than man-made materials. Moreover, they are more environmentally friendly. Recent research focuses on application of different types of fire retardants during the manufacturing proces s as well as applications of fire retardants (especially intumescent coatings) at the finishing stage. A good example for a very efficient phosphorus-based flame retardant system acting in the gas and condensed phases is aluminum diethyl phosphonate in conjunction with synergists such as melamine polyphosphate (MPP) and others. These phosphonates are mainly used to flame retard polyamides (PA) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) for flame retarded applications in electrical engineering/electronics (EE). These are well illustrated by the investigations on glass fiber reinforced polyamide 66 flames retarded with red phosphorus (PA 66-GF/Pr), which demonstrate these charming characteristics Figure 1 shows the thermal and thermo-oxidative decomposition of PA 66-GF/Pr in comparison to PA 66-GF, as well as the performance in cone calorimeter experiments. For both materials, decomposition is characterized by at least three different processes, which strongly overlap for PA 66-GF and are clearly separated for PA 66-GF/Pr. Some decomposition processes are shifted to lower temperatures so that the decomposition region is broadened. There is only a small increase in thermal stability for the final decomposition step. Thermal decomposition changes from a one-step decomposition to a two-step decomposition characteristic. In fire tests, PA 66-GF/Pr is an effective charging material, achieving a clear reduction in THE and HRR in the cone calorimeter, as well as the highest self-extinction classifi cation V-0 in the UL 94, whereas in the case of PA 66-GF all of the polymeric material is consumed so that only the glass fibers remain. Thermo-oxidative decomposition of PA 66 was concluded to occur in cone calorimeter experiments before ignition when a black skin is built up, and during afterglow after flame-out, when a further decrease in mass occurs accompanied by CO production. During the forced-flaming between ignition and flame-out, a stable flame rules out a major influence of oxygen on the decomposition during pyrolysis. The mass loss after flaming combustion and the burning time are used to estimate an average effective pyrolysis temperature. This temperature was estimated by the necessary equivalent isothermal thermos gravimetry with the same mass loss in the burning time. This is a very rough estimation, of course, since the sample in the cone calorimeter, which is characterized by a temperature profile developing over time, is described by a constant temperature independent of place and time. However, since the specimens investigated were rather thin (2.8 mm) and contained inert filler, and because the fire residue was rather homogenous, the values summarized in Table 3 reasonably estimate the effect. The pyrolysis temperature for PA 66-GF is controlled by the decomposition temperature of the polymer and remains more or less constant for all irradiations used. The calculated temperature is higher than-but still close to-the temperature characteristic for the maximum mass loss rate in thermos grav imetry, and the temperature increases slightly with increasing irradiation. The PA 66 is consumed nearly completely by the pyrolysis zone running through the sample. The approximated pyrolysis temperature of PA 66-GF/Pr is characterized by the decomposition temperature of the first decomposition step and thus crucially lower than the temperatures concluded for PA 66-GF. Summary: The development and characterization of self-healing synthetic polymeric materials have been inspired by biological systems in which damage triggers an autonomic healing response. This is an emerging and fascinating area of research that could significantly extend the working life and safety of the polymeric components for a broad range of applications The past decade has witnessed remarkable advances in stimuli-responsive shape memory polymers (SMPs) with potential applications in biomedical devices, aerospace, textiles, civil engineering, bionics engineering, energy, electronic engineering, and household products. Shape memory polymer composites (SMPCs) have further enhanced and broadened the applications of shape memory polymers. In addition to reinforcement, SMPCs can enable or enhance thermal stimuli-active effects, novel shape memory effect, and new functions. Many thermal stimuli-responsive effects have been achieved such as electroactive effect, magnetic-active effect, water- active effect, and photoactive effect. The typical examples of novel shape memory effects are multiple shape memory effect, spatially controlled shape memory effect, and two-way shape memory effects. In addition, new functions of SMPCs have been observed and systemically studied such as stimuli-memory effect and self-healing. Flame retardancy of polymeric materials is conducted to provide fire protection to flammable consumer goods, as well as to mitigate fire growth in a wide range of fires. Incorporating flame-resistant additives into polymers became a common and relatively cheap way to reduce the flammability of polymers, while synthesizing intrinsically fire-resistant polymers has remained a more expensive alternative, although the properties of these polymers are usually more efficient at deterring combustion References: Fame, Fire and Materials http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com A review of stimuli-responsive shape memory polymer composites http://www.sciencedirect.com Emerging Areas of Materials Science and Nanotechnology http://materialsscience.conferenceseries.com Schartel, Bernhard Phosphorus-based Flame Retardancy Mechanisms-Old Hat or a Starting Point for Future Development Braun, U.; Balabanovich, A.I.; Schartel, B.; Knoll, U.; Artner, J.; Ciesielski, M.; Dà ¶ring, M.; Perez, R.; Sandler, J.K.W.; et al. Influence of the Oxidation State of Phosphorus on the Decomposition and Fire Behaviour of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Resin Composites. Polymer 2006, 47, 8495-8508 Perez, R.; Sandler, J.K.W.; et al. Influence of the Oxidation State of Phosphorus on the Decomposition and Fire Behaviour of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Resin Composites. Polymer 2006, 47, 8495-8508 Zhang, H. Fire-Safe Polymers and Polymer Composites, Federal Aviation Administration technical report; U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, D.C., 2004. Kumar, D.; Gupta, A. D.; Khullar, M. Heat-resistant thermosetting polymers based on a novel tetrakisaminophenoxycyclotriphosphazene. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem. 1993, 31 (11), 2739-2745.

Shirley Temple: Origins of the Optimistic Image :: Shirley Temple Image Essays

Shirley Temple: Origins of the Optimistic Image Shirley Temple. When the name is uttered an image of the dimpled faced, curly haired, tap dancing four year old from the 1930s automatically appears in everyone's mind. She was the child actress of the depression era, winning over the hearts and pocket books of many. Films, dolls and even a drink named after her, her face and name were ones that couldn't be missed. She was Fox's gem and saviour. She was an escape from the hard life. She was a star. The image that she gave off, of love for the needy and pure optimism, must have had an origin. Did it rise from the social needs of the public to escape the depression or was it purely constructed by Twentieth Century-Fox? Her image clearly correlates with the mentality of the public at the time, but Fox must have had a hand. Undoubtedly her image was created through a mixture of both elements. To analyze the degree to which Shirley Temple's image was formed through the needs of the time or through manipulation by Fox, one must first look at stars' images in general and how they come into being. What do stars represent to the audience? What is the nature of their images? Many people might say that stars are merely a product of the Hollywood system needing to make a profit; Hollywood manufactures a product and creates the demand for it. A star's image is processed through advertisements and promotions and has little to do with what the audience wants and needs from entertainment. There is a widespread mentality that any Average Joe can become a star with enough resources backing him up. Richard Dyer points out, however, that even movies full of stars fail, and stars can and do fall out of fashion (12). A star's economic worth is not invulnerable to audiences' opinions. The audience isn't so easily controlled. As Dyer says, "Stars ... are the direct or indirect reflection of the needs, drives and dreams of American society." (6). The star's image is formed by what the audience chooses to see, and the audience will choose to see a movie that fills their societal needs, even if unconsciously. Once the audience has made its decision, it empowers that star to fulfill these needs. "Stars have a privileged position in the definition of social roles and types, and this must have real consequences in terms of how people believe they can and should behave" (Dyer 8).